BETRAYAL IN THE CITY - LITERARY DEVICES

Repetition         

Repetition is a literary device where words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs have been repeated in a literary work.

Examples of words and sentences that have been repeated in the play:

               i.            Where was. P2

             ii.            Smell. P2

            iii.            The sub-chief. P3

           iv.            Cold. P14

             v.            Tell him. P8

           vi.            I can’t believe. P11

          vii.            i. p13

        viii.            I doesn’t want. P13

           ix.            Duty. P13

             x.            You. P14

           xi.            Who say. P15

          xii.            Like all liquids have different boiling points. P19

        xiii.            There were. P22

        xiv.            Opportunity. P22

         xv.            Too soft. P25

        xvi.            What did. P29

      xvii.            I hate. P29

     xviii.            You are there. P49

        xix.            No. p58

         xx.            I can’t believe it. P72

        xxi.            Shoot now. P72

      xxii.            Pin him down. P72

Dramatic Irony 

It is a situation in a literary work where an audience know something that one character does not know about.

Examples in the play:

               i.            Mulili did not know that Kabito was behind the cancellation of his milk tender. After realizing that his tender was given to someone else he calls boss who helps him again to get the tender. In the committee meeting he tells those present including Kabito that the person who went behind his back to steal his tender would live to regret.

             ii.            Mulili did not know that the remaining committee members knew that he was involved in the death of Kabito. The committee members also did not know that it was Boss who ordered the killing of Kabito.

            iii.            Mosese did not know that the bible Jere had in prison was the one he was given by Doga while they were in Adika’s grave.

           iv.            The readers knew that Regina was Jusper’s girlfriend but Tumbo knew that they were cousins because Jusper had told him.

             v.            Boss did not know that Jusper was the son of Doga and Nina and also the brother of Adika.

           vi.            Boss did not know that Mulili was telling him lies about Kabito. Though Boss admits that Kabito had always been loyal to him, he still orders Mulili to kill him.

          vii.            Earlier in the play Tumbo did not know that Jusper and Adika were brothers but he later learns the truth.

Poetic Justice

This is a literary device where the villain or the antagonist is punished because of his vices and the protagonist is rewarded because of his virtues. In the play, both Mulili and Boss are punished because of the injustices they had committed to the citizens of Kafira. At the end of the play, Boss’s government is overthrown through a civilian coup while Mulili is killed by Jusper.

                               

Songs

In the play, Doga and Nina are faced with sadness and bitterness for losing their son Adika. To relieve themselves of the pain they sing a religious song. P8

Proverbs

A proverb is a phrase or a sentence that contains some general truth. Some of the proverbs used in the novel are:

               i.            Doga used the proverb ‘a mouse does not share a bowl with a cat,’ when his wife was insisting on telling the sub-chief on what had happened in Adika’s grave. P3

             ii.            Doga used the proverb ‘a cloudy sky does not always cry rain,’ when he was insisting on why their traditional ceremony will take place. P3

            iii.            Jere used the proverb ‘when the madness of an entire nation disturbs a solitary mind, it is not enough to say the man is mad’ when Mosese was having nightmares which revealed the internal conflicts that he was facing. P31

           iv.            Jusper used the proverb ‘mad men don’t pretend,’when he was arguing with Regina on why he should revenge the deaths of his entire family. P33

             v.            Askari used the proverb ‘silence is the best ship home,’ when he realized how a great talker Mosese was. P19

           vi.            Jusper used the proverb ‘little knowledge is truly dangerous,’ when he was talking to Regina about the struggles that he has been facing after the death of Adika. P34

          vii.            Tumbo used the proverb ‘money is not the problem; the problem is how to spend,’ when Regina wanted to limit them on the drinks that jusper was going to buy. P43

        viii.            Tumbo used the proverb ‘the day of a man’s death is not written on his forehead,’ when he was warning Jusper not to let his identity to be known by Boss. P66

           ix.            Mulili used the proverb ‘change is like rest,’ when he wanted Boss to be killed for ruining the economy of Kafira. P73

Dialect 

Dialect is the usage of vocabulary that is characteristic of a specific group of people or community. In the play Mulili used dialect during the rehearsal of the play that was to be acted for the visiting head of state. He used the word “kabisa” when he was telling those present at the rehearsal how boss had spoiled the economy Kafira. p73

                                               

Charactonym    

It is a literary device whereby the name of a character symbolises the nature or trait of the character.

Examples in the play:

         i.            Boss – The name boss has a symbolic meaning since it represents a person who is in charge of other people and tells them what to do. This name perfectly fits the leader of Kafira since he is a dictator who only wants his orders to be followed without question.

       ii.            Askari – It is a Swahili name for anyone in the disciplined forces. The name has a symbolic meaning since it represents someone in charge of security.

      iii.            Mosese wa Tonga – The name means “Remember the past.” In the play, most of Mosese’s conversation with other characters dwells with what happened in the past.

     iv.            Tumbo – Tumbo is a Swahili name for stomach. The name is a euphemism for corrupt government official.

Similes

A simile is a comparison of people, objects, places, actions etc. using the words “like” or “as.”

Examples of similes used in the play:

         i.            He was slaughtered like a goat.

       ii.            He wailed like a woman in a death home. P23

      iii.            Pounce on you like hungry leopards. P32

     iv.            As positive as when a sick right eye is plucked out lest it infects the left one. P22

Climax

The climax represents the point in a narrative or play at which the conflict or tension is at its highest point. In the play this point is reached during the rehearsal of jusper’s play in Boss’s palace. The Climax is reached when jusper starts to get overexcited when he realizes that their plan of overthrowing Boss was happening. He tells those present at the rehearsal that he could not believe that they have succeeded on the off chance. It is also at this point that Boss realizes something is amiss because what Jusper was saying was not part of the script. It dawns on him that the play was all along a means of deposing him. The climax reaches its optimum point when Mosese hands over a gun to jusper who slowly turns and surveys the people before shooting Mulili.                                         

Slang    

Slangs are words that are not part of the standard vocabulary and tend to be used in informal setting. In the play Jusper has used slang when he was addressing his dead brother at his grave. He has used the words “gotta” and “gonna” as part of his vocabulary. P6

                                               

Epiphany            

This is the point in a work of literature where a character or characters have a sudden insight or realization of their situation leading to a change of their understanding. When Jere was sent to restore peace in his sub-location he came face to face with reality of the injustices that was happening. It only took him two days to change his mind after realizing the kind of oppression his people were going through under the leadership of Boss. It is at this point that he disobeyed orders and he tried to shoot Mulili which led to his arrest. Mosese also undergoes an epiphany during Adika’s funeral service. During that time, Mosese learnt the bitter truth that Kafira wasn’t going to change. He changed his mind after a handful of politicians tried to turn the funeral service into a political rally.  Because he could no longer take what the politicians were suggesting, he told them his mind which contributed to his arrest after being set-up. While in prison he undergoes another epiphany. He changes his mind and decides to take part in the play. He realizes that taking part in the play was the only way he could shame Boss. He also might have decided to take part in the play when he realized that that was the only chance he had of being pardoned by Boss and for the reunion of the 600 families that Jere had told him about. While he was in prison, he tells Jere that there were times in his past when he never drew conclusions or fetched his umbrella at the sight of clouds, however dark. His speech seems to be the beginning of him changing his mind to fit the situation he was in.

Regina also goes through an epiphany after meeting with Boss in his palace. While there, Boss tried to take her by force and later we learn that she agreed with Jusper taking part in the play.

               

               

Metaphor          

A metaphor is a comparison used to add descriptive meaning to a phrase without using the words “like” or “as”                .

Examples in the play

a.       Mulili used a metaphor when he called Jere “chicken heart”. p13

b.      Askari used a metaphor when he referred Jere as a “mole”. P30

c.       Tumbo used a metaphor when he referred Boss as an “animal”. P65

d.      Mulili used a metaphor when he referred kabito as a “goat”. P57

e.      Jere used a metaphor when he referred Mulili as a “devil”. P11

Aside   

In plays, aside is an actor’s speech which is directed to the audience.  It is usually used to let the audience know what a character is thinking about or what the character is about to do. Asides are important because they increase an audience involvement in a play by giving them vital information about what is happening inside of a character’s mind and in the plot of the play.

Examples in the play:

      i.            In act one of the play, while at Adika’s gravesite, Doga turns to the audience and asks them what is in money that is more precious than life. He narrates to the audience how the death of Adika took place or happened and who was responsible for his death. He also talks of how jusper changed when he heard about his brother’s death and how he was taken away because he had become a danger to the society. P4-5

    ii.            When jusper goes back to Adika’s grave after throwing Chagaga’s body in a river, his speech is directed towards the audience. He tells the audience what his parents and people think of him, why Regina accepted him as his boyfriend and his reasons for going to the ceremony. P5

   iii.            While in prison, Jere directly addresses the audience after realizing that Mosese may also be suffering from madness after his bout of nightmares. P31

  iv.            In act one scene three of the play, while in Regina’s house Jusper is told by Tumbo to keep the change of the drinks he bought with Tumbo’s money. After Tumbo and Regina leave the room, Jusper turns to the audience and shows them what he is holding. He tells the audience that those were the fruits of independence which they got second hand. P50

Dramatic Monologue

It is a conversation in a literary work where only one character talks.

Examples in the play:

         i.            When jusper had killed Chagaga, he goes back to his brother’s grave and before he talks with his parents who were there but had hidden themselves, he starts talking to himself about how people and his parents think of him. P5

       ii.            In act two of the play, Boss is involved in a monologue before being startled by Mulili. In his monologue he talks about the passage of time by the presence of white hairs in his head which he was busy plucking. P58

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy               

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a statement by a character in a literary work that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true in the future.

Examples in the play:

a.       Doga prophesied that Mulili would die the same way that Adika died. Days later after Doga’s prophecy, Mulili gets shot and killed in the same fashion as Adika.

b.      Jusper prophesied that he would one day get revenge against those who were responsible for his parents’ death. Later in the play he gets his revenge when he shoots and kills Mulili in Boss’s palace during the rehearsal of the play that was to be acted for the visiting head of state.

c.       Kabito prophesied that if Mulili doesn’t get him then he would be the one to get him. He prophesied this after learning that the milk supply tender had been given to Mulili. During the break to cool tempers that had arisen after Mulili’s and Kabito’s confrontation, Mulili goes to Boss’s palace where he gets orders to kill Kabito.

d.      Mulili prophesied that once he knew the person who went behind his back to get the milk supply tender, he would deal with him. He achieves this by calling Kabito during the committee meeting break.  

Play Within a Play          

A play within a play is a literary device where the author of a play incorporates another play in the main play which is acted by the characters involved in the main play.

Examples in the play:

In the play Jere tells Mosese how he and another fellow prisoner who was a stranger to him acted a scene from the bible’s New Testament because of boredom. In their play Jere acted as Pilate while his co-actor was Jesus.

Part of the entertainment of the visiting head of state was a play which was to be acted by Mosese and other prisoners. In the play, Mosese acted as a lieutenant who has been in the army more than Jere who acted as the captain. The lieutenant and the captain argue about the size of the two guns and they both seek the opinion of boss who acts as chief of staff.

               

               

Symbolism        

Symbolism is a literary device whereby symbols such as objects, characters, events, ideas, actions, words, ideas etc. have literal meaning in a literary work.

Examples in the play:

a.       Kafira – It is a representation of post-colonial African states that are struggling with identity crisis, injustices, corruption, nepotism, oppression, political instability etc.

b.      Tumbo He symbolizes corrupt government officials.

c.       Prison – It symbolizes injustice and oppression against the citizens of Kafira.

d.      Tumbo’s jaguar – It symbolizes the class difference between the citizens of Kafira.

e.      Boss’s palace – It symbolized the power held by Boss.

f.        Red gown – It is a symbol of rebellion and revolt against Kafira’s leadership.

g.       Crack in Adika’s grave – It is a symbol of instability in Kafira.

h.      Adika’s death – It symbolized the beginning of the end of Boss’s leadership and change in Kafira. It also symbolized injustices in Kafira.

i.         Mulili’s death – It symbolized change in Kafira.

j.        Askari – He symbolized law and order.

Paradox

A paradox is a statement containing two opposite ideas that make it seem impossible or unlikely though it may probably be true.

Examples in the play:

a.       It was paradoxical when Jere said that innocence can be an offence. P29

b.      It was paradoxical when Jere said that the outside of their cell could be as well the inside of another cell. P16

c.       It was paradoxical when jusper said that they were neither children nor adults. P46

d.      It was paradoxical when Jere said that it was neither but it could be both. P69

Backstory           

It is the narration of events that happened in the past which have a bearing to the events happening in the present. Backstory is revealed in the exposition of a literary work to reveal the cause of situation in the current time.

Examples in the play:

a.       The killing of Chagaga

When Jusper arrived in his late brother’s grave, he holds conversation with his parents and gives hints to his parents of what he was doing that made him to leave Adika’s grave unattended. He tells his parents that he cannot change his shirt after the murder and that he had thrown the body in the river. Jusper’s narration of events that happened that previous night gives the background story of events that were happening at the present time.

b.      The arrest of Jere and Mosese

In act one of the play, scene two begins with the arrest of Jere and Mosese and the two share a prison cell. During their initial conversations nothing is revealed as to why they were arrested but later on we get to know the reasons why both of them were arrested. Mosese tells Jere how he was arrested after he was found in possession of an illegal drug that was hidden in his car. He tells Jere that his arrest was a set-up because earlier on during Adika’s funeral service, a handful of politicians had tried to turn the funeral service into a political rally. Because he couldn’t bear to listen to what the politicians were saying, he stood up and told them his mind and the next day they arrested him after finding a kilogramme of opium in his car. Jere on the other hand, tells Mosese of how he was sent to his own sub-location to restore peace and order and after two days of staying in his sub-location he changed his mind and defied the authorities which led to his arrest.

c.       Death of Doga and Nina

While in prison, the askari tells Mosese to take his advice so that they may be released like the university student from the mental hospital who took his advice and was in the process of being discharged. During the conversation between Askari and Mosese, we learn about the death of Doga and Nina. Later on we learn that Doga and Nina were killed by Mulili who got orders from Boss to kill them.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a literary device where the author of a literary work or the characters in a literary work gives hints about events that will happen in future.

Examples in the play:

a.       Doga foreshadows the death of Mulili when he tells him that he may die the way adika did. Later on during the rehearsal of the play in Boss’s palace, Mulili is shot dead by Jusper fulfilling Doga’s prophecy.

b.      In act one of the play Mulili foreshadows his future. He tells Jere that if he maintained law and order he would become a big farmer. His predictions come to pass as he becomes a big farmer with the capability of supplying milk to the university.

c.       When Jere and Mulili had an argument in Adika’s grave on whether to allow the traditional ceremony to take place, Jere attempts to shoot Mulili who ducks away. Mulili then tells Jere that he will pay for trying to shoot him. In scene two, mulili’s prediction comes true when Jere is arrested and imprisoned.

d.      While he was at Regina’s house, jusper tells Regina that a day would come when he would have his revenge against those who killed his entire family. Jusper’s prediction comes true during the rehearsal of the play when he shoots and kills Mulili.

e.      In act two of the play, Tumbo foreshadows changes that were about to happen in Kafira. His predictions come true during the rehearsal of the play when the actors who were taking part in the play successfully conspire to overthrow the government of Boss.

f.        When Regina wanted to go and plead for the release of his brother Mosese, she told tumbo that she had a funny feeling that something will go wrong. Her predictions came to pass because when Regina went to boss’s palace boss tried to take her by force.

                               

Apostrophe       

Apostrophe is a literary device where a character addresses someone absent or dead as if they were together.

Examples in the play:

a.       In act one of the play; Doga addressed his dead son as if he were still alive. In his address he tells his son not to be deceived by money and to take revenge against those who killed him. P4

b.      Jusper addressed his dead brother Adika when he arrived at his gravesite. In his address he begs his brother to help him prevent their parents from getting old and to join the struggle that he was undertaking. P5-6

c.       While in prison, Mosese addressed an absent person when he was overcome by nightmares. P30-31

Euphemism

It is a situation where a direct or unpleasant word or phrase is replaced by an indirect more pleasant one to avoid being being blunt.

Examples in the play:

a.       Doga used the euphemism “silent” to mean dead. P4

b.      Doga used the euphemism “cooled down” to mean rehabilitated. P4

c.       Doga used the euphemism “throw your weight” to mean force or power. P9

d.      Jere used the euphemism “in the dark” to mean not knowing or not being aware of something. P11

e.      Doga used the euphemism “wells” to mean eyes.

f.        Askari used the euphemism “educating” to mean rehabilitating. P16

g.       Askari used the euphemism “bleeding” to mean saying. P17

h.      Mosese used the euphemism “fire” to mean trouble.

i.         Regina used the euphemism “dungeon” to mean prison cells. P34

j.        Tumbo used the euphemism “common tongues” to mean common people. P40

k.       Nicodemo used the euphemism “potato” to mean tender. P51

l.         Tumbo used the euphemism “eliminate” to mean kill. P62

m.    Boss used the euphemism “silent” to mean dead. P60

n.      Mulili used the euphemism “thing” to mean the male reproductive organ. P13

Rhetorical Question      

A rhetorical question is a question asked with the intention of not getting an answer.

Examples in the play:

Nina: Who would have thought they would follow him even to his grave? P1

Doga: Tradition condemns the shedding of a kinsman’s blood. Nina, what will you teach me about tradition? P4

Doga: The sub chief! Who is the sub chief? P3

Mulili: Who you call child, eeh? Jere you tell him. Tell him what I does with stubborn old mens. P8

Jere: Do you know they only acted referees in a match between our sides? It was an empty battle where we fought against ourselves. P15

Mosese: Brutes! Murderers! Beat up my innocent sister until she lost hearing in one hear. Why beat a woman? Why didn’t they beat me? P29

Mosese: What did you say? What did I hear you say? Now listen you! I hate people who say that to me! P29

Tumbo: Yes, Red guards is my name for rioting university students. When will you learn to concentrate on what you went there for? P38

Kabito: As far as I am concerned, Mulili is an army dropout and a second rate farmer. What does he know about entertaining an important visitor? This is not an agricultural show. P52

Flashback           

Flashback is the narration of past events in a literary work.

Examples in the play:

a.       In the play Doga narrates how the death of Adika took place. He narrates of how the university students were marching and how shooting broke out leading to the death of his son Adika. The killer of his son was later relieved of his duties two weeks after Adika’s burial.

b.      Jusper’s narration of how he killed Chagaga is a narration of events that happened in the past. He tells his parents of how he had thrown the body into the river without anyone seeing him. Though Doga and Nina didn’t know who Jusper was talking about, it later dawned on them when Jere and Mulili arrive to the gravesite and informs them of how and when Jusper killed Chagaga. Jere tells Doga and Nina how Jusper, dressed in a white shirt, confessed in front of the masses to killing Chagaga. This narration by Jere was of events that happened moments before he and Mulili arrived to the gravesite.

c.       Jere flashes back and narrates about the prisoner called Mustafa who escaped through the help of Mulili. P14

d.      While in prison, Mosese narrates to Jere what kind of a man he was before prison changed him. He tells Jere how he wasn’t always the way he is. He talks about the past and asks Jere if he remembers the great row over the changing of names and how blows were exchanged in the planning committee over whether the changing of names should be item number one or three in the development plan. Mosese also narrates to Jere of how he was arrested after attending the funeral of Adika. He narrates to Jere how tense the atmosphere was at the funeral and how a handful of politicians tried to turn the funeral service into a political rally forcing him to stand up and speak his mind. After Adika’s funeral he got arrested for being in possession of an illegal drug which was found in his car and which was planted there by a man named Nicodemus.

e.      While in Regina’s house, Jusper narrates to Regina how Mosese was arrested. P35

Biblical Allusion              

Biblical allusion is a literary device where reference is made to biblical entities such as biblical characters, events, phrases etc.

Examples in the play:

a.       Nina mentions the name of Jesus when they were praying at Adika’s grave. Jesus was a historical biblical figure whose followers are the Christians. P8

b.      There is also the mentioning of biblical figures Pilate and Jesus by Jere. While in prison, Jere tells Mosese how they had a play with a fellow inmate. In the play Jere acted as Pilate while his fellow inmate acted as Jesus. He also tells Mosese that the reason why he carried a bible to the prison was because he wanted to have a first-hand experience of the lives of the people he was fighting for and that was why it was important for him to read Pilate’s story and to live it. He quotes a verse from the Old Testament i.e. exodus 21:24 which advocates for revenge. Jere asks Mosese if he can imagine the sense it would have made if a common man had caned Jesus. He tells Mosese that that type of action would have been positive. As positive as when a sick right eye is plucked out lest it infects the left. This last statement is a quote from the book of Mathew 5:29.

c.       Mosese also quotes biblical verses during his conversation with Jere. The quote “the last shall be first” is a quote from the book of Mathew 20:16 and “blessed are the poor for they shall inherit the kingdom of heaven” is a quote from the book of Mathew 5:3.

Analogy

An analogy is a literary device whereby a character or the author of a literary work compares one situation to another that is totally different from the one being talked about.

Examples in the play:

         i.            In act one of the play, Jere drew an analogy of his decision not to speak up when Mulili allowed to Mustafa to escape and his decision to allow Doga and Nina perform their traditional ceremony without the knowledge of the authorities. P14

       ii.            Jere drew an analogy of how the prison system works with that of the meteorological department. P17-18

      iii.            Jere drew an analogy of the story of Pilate with his own story while he was in prison. P23

     iv.            While in prison, Mosese drew an analogy of his past life with the present situation. P28

       v.            The play that was written by Jusper and acted by the prisoners was meant to draw an analogy of the achievements that had taken place in Kafira since independence. P44

Ad Hominem    

It is a literary device whereby a character attacks another character during an argument to expose his or her weaknesses.

Examples in the play:

a.       In the opening of the play Doga constantly attacks his wife Nina to show how weak hearted she was. P1

b.      Mulili attacked Doga when Doga tells him that the shaving ceremony they were about to perform was no child’s play. His attack was to show how stubborn Doga was. P8

c.       Doga attacked Mulili when Mulili called him a murderer. His attack was to show how disrespectful Mulili was towards him. P9

d.      Doga attacked Jere when he learnt that Jere was Kaleka’s son. He attacked him because he learnt that Jere’s father was his age mate yet his son was being disrespectful towards him. P10

e.      Mulili attacked Jere for being too soft and sympathetic towards Doga and Nina. P10

f.        Mulili attacked Doga and Nina for being too primitive and for not knowing about the whereabouts of Jusper. P10

g.       Jere attacked Mulili for showing disrespect towards Doga and Nina and calling them murderers. Because of Jere’s sympathy towards the old couple Mulili attacks him for showing sympathy and for being a coward since Jere feared the old couple. P13

h.      Mulili attacked Adika during his argument with Jere to show how inciting Adika was while he was still alive. P14

i.         Askari attacked Jere for calling him his friend. P16

j.        Mosese attacked the prison askari for asking questions yet when he was silent he wanted to know why he was not talking.

k.       Askari attacked Jere for causing trouble in the cells when Jere tried to sympathise with Mosese. To askari, Jere was a troublesome character. P29

l.         During the argument between Kabito and Mulili, kabito attacked Mulili for going against his suggestions that were to form part of the entertainment for the visiting head of state. He also attacked him for being dictatorial. P56

                               

Inversion            

It is a literary device where the normal order or the arrangement of a statement or phrase is changed but still maintain its true meaning.

Examples in the play:

a.       When Mulili came late during the committee meeting that was tasked with the entertainment for the visiting head of state, he used the phrase “better never than late” which should have been “better late than never.” P54

b.      When Mulili went to see his cousin, boss, after his conflict with Kabito he described Kabito as a snake and he used the phrase “a green grass in the snake” instead of saying “a snake in green grass” which is the correct phrase.

Plot Twist

A plot twist is a literary device where there is an unexpected change in the direction of the plot which brings changes in a literary work. Several changes in the play “Betrayal in the City” take place which alters the direction of the play’s plot.

For example:

         i.            Jusper’s confession which leads to his arrest.

       ii.            Adika’s death which brings about several conflicts in the play’s story line.

      iii.            Jere’s arrest which leads him to encounter Mosese at the prison cell and which led him to convince Mosese to take part in the play.

     iv.            Mosese’s acceptance to take part in the play.

       v.            Kabito’s conflict with Mulili which leads to Kabito’s death.

     vi.            Jusper winning the play writing competition which sets in motion the conspiracy against Boss’s government.

    vii.            Regina’s decision to go and plead with boss so that Mosese could be released from prison.

               

                               

Narrative Hook

A narrative hook is an opening in a literary work that hooks the reader or audience attention so that they keep reading or listening. In the opening of the play, the author has hooked the reader’s attention by setting the stage where events are taking place on a gravesite. The play opens up with two old couple, Doga and Nina, lamenting about the death of their son Adika and the disappearance of their other son, Jusper, who was supposed to take care of the grave so that it could not be desecrated. From the tone and mood of the two old couple, there seems to be a lot of bitterness about the injustice that had been met on them. All in all the setting, the mood and the conversation between Doga and Nina captures the attention of the readers.             

Propaganda

It is the spreading of false information through rumours or campaigns in order to gain sympathy or to show weakness of another individual, community or an institution. In the play Mulili gives false information about Kabito to Boss so as to gain favour from Boss since he was in conflict with Kabito. The false information that he gives angers Boss and he orders for the elimination of Kabito. Mulili also uses propaganda to show how weak Kabito was. He tells Boss that Kabito arrived at the meeting drunk yet that was not the case. In the same act of the play, Mulili also spreads false information against Kabito by telling Tumbo and Nicodemo that kabito death was caused by drunk driving and that Boss was in tears when he heard about the death of Kabito.

               

Deus Ex Machina            

Deus ex machina is a literary device whereby a difficult situation or a hopeless situation is made easier by an unexpected power or event.

Examples in the play:

a.       When Doga and Nina were faced with the reality that their late son’s ceremony would not take place, Jere, who was one of the soldiers sent to prevent the ceremony from taking place undergoes a transformational change and lets Doga and Nina to continue with their ceremony. Jere’s action leads him to his arrest.

b.      When it appeared hopeless that Jere and Mosese were not going to be released from prison, the chance to act in the play that was to be performed for the visiting head of state presented an opportunity for the two prisoners to be released early from prison.

c.       Jusper’s thirst for revenge against those who were responsible for his entire family’s death becomes a reality when at the end of the play that was to be acted for the visiting head of state, Boss hands over one of the guns to jusper who proceeds and shoots Mulili.

d.      Regina’s desperation to have his brother released from prison becomes easier when Tumbo informs her that he has arranged a meeting between her and Boss.

e.      When it seemed hopeless that Mulili was not going to get the milk supply tender, his cousin called the university catering manager and tells him to give the tender to Mulili.

Framing Device               

A framing device is a literary device whereby an action, scene, event or any element of significance occurs at the beginning and at the end of a literary work. For example, in the opening of the play the author has used framing device when Doga criticized Nina because she feared to look at the grave of their late son Adika. In the second framing device which happens at the end of the play, Doga criticizes her again for fearing to look at Mulili’s dead body.

At the end of scene one in act one of the play, Mulili uses the cliché “dust to dust, ash to ash” while at Adika’s grave to symbolize the end of Adika. The same words are also used by Jere against Mulili to symbolize his end.

Categoria

It is a literary device where one character exposes his/her opponents’ wickedness in their presence.

Examples in the play:

a.       Jere exposed Mulili’s ignorance in his presence while he was trying to explain to Doga why he was talking the way he did. P9

b.      Kabito exposed Mulili’s dictatorial tendencies during the committee meeting that was to discuss the entertainment for the visiting head of state.p56

c.       During the rehearsal of the visitor’s play, Mulili exposed the wickedness that his cousin, Boss, turned foe had committed against the people of Kafira.

Catastrophe      

It is a literary device where one of the central character or several characters die at the end of a literary work. In the play, catastrophe is achieved when Mulili who is one of the central characters and the play’s antagonist is shot and killed by Jusper. Jusper killed him because he wanted to get revenge since Mulili was the one who was responsible for the death of his parents. The death of Mulili is the final resolution of the play and brings the play to a close. This type of catastrophe is complex because one of the main character i.e. Jusper, undergoes a transformational change in his state of mind.

               

Fatal Flaw          

It is the weaknesses of a major character either the protagonist or the antagonist or any other central character which leads to their demise. In the play, Mulili’s treatment towards other characters leads to his downfall when Jusper takes revenge against him by killing him. It was because of his cruelty and heartless nature that led to his final downfall.

Boss also had weaknesses that led to his downfall. Because of his corrupt, dictatorial and cruel nature, the citizens of Kafira rose against his leadership and conspired to overthrow him. Though he tries to change his attitude when he learnt that Mulili had betrayed him and had exposed some of the misdeeds that he had committed, his change does not affect those who were hell-bent on overthrowing him.                          

Hubris 

It is the excessive pride and lack of self-control that leads to the downfall of a character. Mulili and Boss exhibit excessive pride that led to their downfall. Mulili uses his position as a soldier and cousin to Boss to harass Doga and Nina. In act one, Mulili shows arrogance towards Doga, Nina and Jere. He shows no respect to Doga and Nina who are older than him. He also uses abusive language towards the two old couple by calling them primitive in their presence. He was also arrogant and abusive towards Jere.

In act two of the play, Mulili shows arrogance towards Kabito since he only wanted his opinions to be followed by the other committee members. He felt untouchable because of the close relationship that he had with Boss. His excessive pride and arrogance led to his downfall during the rehearsal of the play when Jusper shoots and kills him. On the other hand Boss uses his position as the leader of Kafira to bully his citizens and using excessive violence to those who were opposed against his leadership. Due to his cruelty the citizens of Kafira conspire to overthrow him and they finally achieved their goal during the rehearsal of the play that was to be acted for the visiting head of state.

                               

Premonition

Premonition is a literary device where a character has a strong and unpleasant feeling that something bad is about to happen. In the play Regina tells Tumbo that she fears to see boss personally because she had a funny feeling that something will go wrong. (p45)

Regina’s gut feeling came true when she went to boss’s palace to plead for his brother’s release and boss tried to take her by force but she escaped by jumping a ten high foot window.

                               

Allegory              

The play “Betrayal in the city” is an allegorical representation of post independent African states that struggle for economic, political and democratic ideals. The problems facing Kafira are the same problems that post independent African states struggled with. These problems include:

                                                         i.            Lack of democracy

                                                       ii.            Corruption and bribery

                                                      iii.            Nepotism

                                                     iv.            Dictatorship

                                                       v.            Lack of experts to take over the running of the government and economy.

                                                     vi.            Civil disobedience

                                                    vii.            Random arrests (injustices)

Situational Irony

Situational irony is a literary device whereby an unexpected event happens or an expected event fails to happen.

Common examples of situational irony in the play are:

                                 i.            It was ironical that Jere, who was supposed to prevent the traditional ceremony from taking place, ends up supporting Doga and Nina in advocating for the ceremony.

                               ii.            It was ironical that Doga told Mulili that adika was an innocent harmless dead yet he wanted to perform a ceremony that would rid him of his son’s ghost.

                              iii.            It was ironical that Mulili who was a soldier helped a prisoner by the name of Mustafa to escape. In normal circumstances, he was the one who would have prevented him from escaping since he was a law enforcer.

                             iv.            It was ironical that a stranger who hardly knew Adika was arrested and framed for his death.

                               v.            It was ironical that jusper and Mosese agreed to take part in the play yet they strongly opposed Boss’s leadership.

                             vi.            It was ironical that Jere did not say a word after Mulili helped Mustafa to escape yet as a law enforcer he was supposed to do so.

                            vii.            It was ironical that Askari told Mosese not to listen to Jere because he would poison his mind yet it is Jere who ends up convincing Mosese to take part in the play.

                          viii.            It was ironical that Askari wanted to help Mosese so that he could be released from prison.

                             ix.            It was ironical that Jusper dreamt that he was shaking hands with their local sub chief yet it was the sub chief’s brother who was responsible for the death of Adika.

                               x.            It was ironical that Tumbo met Jusper by chance in Regina’s house and Jusper was a play writer and Tumbo wanted a play writer who could write a play that would form part of the entertainment for the visiting head of state.

                             xi.            It was ironical that Mulili said that Boss was in tears after learning about the death of Kabito yet it was him who ordered his death.

                            xii.            It was ironical that Jere disobeyed the orders he was given of maintaining peace by preventing the traditional ceremony from taking place.

Dystopia

Dystopia is a state where a society or community is oppressed and where everything is unpleasant or bad as a result of having a totalitarian leadership.

In the play “Betrayal in the city,” the people who lived in the country of Kafira face dilemma because of the oppressive government of Boss.

Some of the problems facing the people of Kafira include:

         i.            Dictatorship – As the leader of Kafira, Boss uses his position to impose draconian laws to his citizens. Those who do not agree with him are either killed as was with the case of Doga and Nina or are jailed as was with the case of Jere and Mosese. In act two of the play, Boss tells jusper that when he goes back he should tell the university student leaders that it is his duty to decide the magnitude of Kafira’s africanisation programme. Boss also tells Tumbo that no one who shouts at him ever get what they wanted. From his conversation with the two characters it is clear that the leader of Kafira does not tolerate the opinions of other people.

       ii.            Civil disobedience – In the opening scene of the play we learn about the death of Adika who was killed while demonstrating against the oppressive government of Boss. After Adika’s death, the university students also held demonstrations to force their government and allow the press to put photograph of Adika in the local newspapers. The university students also held demonstrations to oppose the appointment of expatriates by Boss. They were also planning to demonstrate against the head of state who was going to visit Kafira.

      iii.            Lawlessness – With murder all over, it is evident that there was lawlessness in Kafira. Failure to arrest the perpetrators of the heinous acts is a clear indication of the level of lawlessness that was in Kafira.

     iv.            Nepotism – Boss uses his position as the leader of Kafira to reward his cousin Mulili. He promises him a big farm and grade cattle’s if he carries out his wishes and Mulili does so with a lot of enthusiasm. As relatives, Mulili benefits more than any other person in the play. When the university milk supply tender was given to Kabito, Mulili approached boss who called the university catering manager and ordered him to give Mulili the tender. Boss also uses his position to include Mulili in the entertainment committee that was tasked with planning the entertainment diary of the visiting head of state.

       v.            Corruption – Tumbo, Kabito, Mulili, Boss and Nicodemo use their positions as government officials to enrich themselves. In act one of the play, Tumbo tells Jusper that there are opportunities but they don’t come on a plate. He asks Jusper why he wants to ruin his chances by pretending to talk for others. He tells him to fight for himself first and when his presence is felt he can then risk shouting for others. As a government official, it is very suspicious for a person like Tumbo to own several blocks of houses and to drive an automatic car. When he learns that Jusper is a play writer he offers him a job of writing the play that would be used to entertain the visitor. He gives Jusper the job because he does not want it to go through the play writing competition. He announces Jusper as the winner of the competition and tells him that out of the six hundred pound that was to finance the competition, one third of it was to be given to Jusper and Regina while the rest was to be used to put the record straight. Tumbo’s speech was a clear indication of how corrupt he was. On the other hand Nicodemo and Kabito use the committee meeting to make money from it. Conversation between these two characters shows how greedy and corrupt they were. Through Mulili, we learn of how corrupt Boss was. At the end of the play Mulili tells of how Boss had spoiled the economy of Kafira by hiding millions in foreign countries.

     vi.            Imprisonment – Jere, Mosese and Jusper were imprisoned for going against the laws and against the leadership of Kafira. Jusper is imprisoned for killing Chagaga and is released three months later. Jere is imprisoned for going against the orders he was given and Mosese is imprisoned after being found in possession of a kilogramme of opium in his car. Both Mosese and Jere are offered amnesty by the state on condition that they take part in the play that was to be staged for the visiting head of state. Jusper is also offered amnesty after his recovery and perhaps because his parents had been killed.

    vii.            Injustices – Several acts of injustices to the people of Kafira by those in authority have been revealed through actions and speeches of the characters. These injustices include:

a.       The killing of Adika by the sub-chief’s brother.

b.      Doga and Nina are prevented from holding the shaving ceremony of their son.

c.       The killing of Doga and Nina.

d.      The beating of Jusper by a mob.

e.      The arrest and imprisonment of Mosese.

f.        The beating of Regina by the authorities.

g.       Askari denying to serve Jere tea when Jere was in prison. The killing of kabito by Mulili.

Vivid Description            

It is the description of an event, idea, place, thing or person to create a mental picture of what is being described. In the play certain events, places and actions have been vividly described by the characters and author of the play. For example:

         i.            In act one of the play, the gravesite of Adika has been vividly described. The author of the play says that the lonely grave was surrounded by dry thorny branches. A wooden bowl sits at the centre of the grave and in the bowl there were a few coins. When the grave is fully lit, a crack is seen running across it.

       ii.            Doga vividly describes how his son Adika was killed. He tells the audience how the marching of the university students led to his son’s death. He goes ahead and narrates how the shooting broke out and how people fled in all directions but only his son’s lonely body lay in the middle of the street with four bullet wounds in his chest. He also narrates how two weeks later after Adika’s burial, the sub chief’s brother was dismissed from his job but later defended himself by saying that he did it for self-defence.

      iii.            While at Adika’s gravesite, Jere describes to Doga and Nina how Jusper confessed to killing the sub-chief’s brother. He tells them how Jusper, dressed in a white shirt, confessed in front of the crowd that had gathered how he had killed Chagaga and how the crowd started stoning him until they took to their heels thinking that they had killed him.

     iv.            While in prison, Jere vividly describes to Mosese how he acted with a fellow inmate the story of Jesus and Pilate. He narrates to him how he acted Jesus while his co-actor acted Pilate. In their act his co-actor could not stand it when it came to caning and how he wailed when he was being caned. He continues to tell him how the guards came, stripped him naked and caned him.

       v.            Mosese vividly described to Jere the events that preceded his arrest. He tells him how blows were exchanged in the planning committee over whether the changing of names should be item number one or three in the development plan. He describes to Jere how a day later he was arrested after attending a funeral where he criticized the politicians who had attended the funeral and who had tried to turn the funeral service into a political rally. He also describes to Jere how a man named Nicodemus had planted a kilogramme of opium in his car.

     vi.            Regina’s house has also been vividly described as a small room with the main and kitchen doors, a bed that was neatly spread along the back wall and on the left wall was a clothes stand on which a woman’s clothes hung.

Idiophones        

An idiophone is a sound which mimics the source of the sound. In several instances in the play Jusper has mimicked the sound of a firing gun (Tututututu). P6, p32, p72.

                               

Onomatopoeia

It is the use of words that imitate sounds.

Examples in the play:

Tumbo: Aaa! God knows I needed that drink. P46

Tumbo: You are there son, you are there. Now three cheers to the winner. Hip! Hip! Regina. P49

Mulili: Oho! That what you thinks. P59

Tumbo: Sshh! See you. P62

Boss: Hmm, very hardworking. P69

Nostalgia

It is a literary device whereby a character or the author of a literary work gets pleasure or is saddened by remembering things from the past and wish they could relive the moment.

When Mosese was arrested and shared his prison with Jere, he starts having memories from his past which he shares with Jere. P28

               

Diatribe

It is the act of criticizing someone to show their weakness or something bad that they have done.

Examples in the play:

         i.            Doga criticized his wife Nina for fearing to step near his son’s grave. P1

       ii.            Doga criticized his wife again when she suggested that they report on the destruction that happened on adika’s grave. P4

      iii.            Both Doga and Nina criticized Jere and Mulili for trying to stop them from carrying on with their dead son shaving ceremony. P9

     iv.            Mulili criticized Jere for being too lenient on Doga and Nina. P13

       v.            The prison askari criticized Jere for calling him his friend. P16

     vi.            Mosese criticized Askari for accepting his job since he was a learned man. P19

    vii.            Mosese criticized Jere for showing sympathy towards him. P29

  viii.            Askari criticized Jere for making trouble in the cells. P29

     ix.            Regina criticized Jusper for not listening to Mosese’s advice.

Dream Vision

A dream vision is a literary device whereby a dream or vision of a character reveals some truth to the character while he is awake.

Example in the play

When jusper went to Regina’s house, he told her about the dream that he has been having. The dream revealed to him that the spirits of his brother Adika was not happy with him for shaking hands with the sub chief whose brother was responsible for his death.                           

Idiomatic expressions

An idiomatic expression is a group of words whose meaning is different from the meaning of the individual words but describe the same thing.

Examples in the play:

a.       Empty talk is an idiomatic expression used by Doga to mean a non-issue. P1

b.      Grave meaning is an idiomatic expression used by Doga to mean something dangerous or important. P1

c.       To go wild is an idiomatic expression used by Doga to mean to go berserk or to get out of control. P1

d.      Full of sleep is an idiomatic expression used by Doga to mean feeling sleepy. P7

e.      God’s hands is an idiomatic expression used by Nina to mean to leave everything to take its own course.

f.        Dry of words is an idiomatic expression used by Nina to mean lack of words to say. P8

g.       Child’s play is an idiomatic expression used by Doga meaning something that is not very easy to do. P8

h.      Empty words is an idiomatic expression used by Doga that meant speech of no value. P10

i.         Throw your weight is an idiomatic expression meaning to use your power or position in an aggressive way. P9

j.        Turning our hearts over and over is an idiomatic expression meaning to cause disturbance. P9

k.       To be in the dark is an idiomatic expression meaning not to know about something. P11

l.         To open mouth is an idiomatic expression meaning to reveal something by talking about it. P14

m.    A hot mouth is an idiomatic expression for someone who expresses his opinions openly without fear. P19

n.      To be at home is an idiomatic expression meaning to know more about something. P22

o.      To have a mind is an idiomatic expression to politely tell someone your disapproval of his/her behaviour.

p.      A pain in the neck is an idiomatic expression meaning someone who irritates. P39

q.      To dig your own grave is an idiomatic expression meaning to be involved in a bad situation. P52

r.        To let off steam is an idiomatic expression meaning to cool down. P57

s.       Old hand is an idiomatic expression meaning to have experience. P60

t.        To have a hand is an idiomatic expression meaning to be involved in something especially something bad. P59.

OTHER LITERARY DEVICES USED IN THE PLAY

a.       APOSIOPESIS

b.      HASTY GENERALIZATION

c.       APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

d.      APPEAL TO IGNORANCE

e.      MOTIF

f.        SYNDETON

g.       CLICHÉ

h.      VERBAL IRONY

i.         HYPOPHORA

j.        EMOTIVE LANGUAGE

k.       VERISIMILITUDE

l.         CIRCULAR ARGUMENT

m.    ANTICLIMAX

n.      ADAGE

o.      SATIRE

p.      PERSONIFICATION

q.      COINCIDENCE

r.        SUSPENSE

s.       ASSERTION

               

1)      FUNCTION OF LITERARY DEVICES IN THE PLAY

·         Literary devices have been used to reveal the source of conflicts in the play for example flashback, backstory.

·         To reveal the inner conflicts within a character e.g. apostrophe, monologue, dialogue.

·         To reveal the tone and mood of the play e.g. dialogue, aside, apostrophe.

·         To reveal the climax of the plot e.g. premonition, foreshadowing, self-fulfilling prophecy.

·         To show a character’s weaknesses and faults e.g. satire, fatal flaw, sarcasm, flashback, hubris, poetic justice etc.

·         To reveal the setting of the play e.g. dialogue.

·         To reveal the resolution of the play e.g. dialogue, foreshadowing, premonition.

·         To reveal directly or indirectly the themes of the play e.g. symbolism, dialogue, flashback, catastrophe, foreshadowing.

·         To give moral lesson e.g. poetic justice, catastrophe, proverbs, biblical allusion.

·         To create visual representation of actions, events, ideas or places e.g. vivid description, simile, metaphor, biblical allusion.

·         To show similarity and comparison of objects, places, characters, events e.g. metaphor, simile, allegory, personification.

·         To give background information regarding the setting, characters and plot of the play e.g. flashback, backstory, nostalgia, vivid description.

·         To give reference e.g. biblical allusion, flashback.

·         To reveal a deeper meaning of an object, idea, action, event, character e.g. symbolism, allusion, allegory.

·         To reveal the thoughts of characters e.g. interior monologue, epiphany, recognition.

·         To reveal directly or indirectly the character traits of some of the characters e.g. dialogue, sarcasm, hubris, flashback.

·         To reveal the conclusion of the play e.g. poetic justice, catastrophe, foreshadowing.

·         To reveal stark contrast of events, people, actions e.g. irony, analogy, similes etc.

·         To reveal the central characters in the play e.g. dialogue, backstory, flashback etc.

·         To appeal to readers with religious backgrounds e.g. biblical allusion.

·         To change the opinion of the reader about the play’s characters, places, events etc.

·         To grab the attention of the audience e.g. comic relief, repetition, aside etc.

·         To relieve tension in the play e.g. comic relief, humour, sarcasm, satire etc.

·         To build suspense and anticipation in the play e.g. suspense, foreshadowing, premonition, self-fulfilling prophecy etc.